The Civil War
1848-1877
As the nation expanded and its population grew, regional tensions, especially over slavery, led to a civil war- the aftermath of which permanently transformed American society. Enthusiasm for US territorial expansion, fueled by economic and national security interests and supported by claims of US racial and cultural superiority, resulted in the American Civil War but it also brought with it the opening of new markets, the acquisition of new territory and ideological changes.
Manifest Destiny
The idea of Manifest Destiny, which asserted US power in the Western Hemisphere and supported US expansion westward, was built on a belief in white racial superiority and a sense of American cultural superiority, and helped shape the era's political debates- especially those regarding slavery. The acquisition of new territory in the West and the US victory in the Mexican-American war were accompanied by a heated controversy over whether slavery would be allowed in these new areas. The desire for access to western resources led to the environmental transformation of the region, new economic activities and increased settlement in areas forcibly taken from American Indians. |
American interest in expanding trade also led to economic, diplomatic and cultural initiatives in Asia (in both China and Japan).
Westward expansion, migration to and within the United States, and the eventual end of slavery reshaped North American boundaries and caused conflicts over American cultural identities, citizenship and the question of extending and protecting rights for various groups in the US.
Substantial numbers of new international migrants (who often lived in ethnic communities and retained their religion, language and customs) entered the country prior to the Civil War. This resulted in a major, often violent, nativist movement that was strongly anti-Catholic and was aimed at limiting immigrants' cultural, political and economic influence.
Substantial numbers of new international migrants (who often lived in ethnic communities and retained their religion, language and customs) entered the country prior to the Civil War. This resulted in a major, often violent, nativist movement that was strongly anti-Catholic and was aimed at limiting immigrants' cultural, political and economic influence.
Asians, African Americans and numerous white settlers sought new economic opportunities in the West. This increased after the Civil War with the passage of new legislation that promoted national economic development.
As the territorial boundaries of the US expanded and the migrant population increased, US government interaction and conflict with Hispanics and American Indians increased, altering these groups' cultures and customs- and raising questions about their status and legal rights.
The Road to War
The institution of slavery and the ideological debates that accompanied the issue (along with regional economic and demographic changes, territorial expansion in the 1840s and 1850s, and the cultural differences between the North and the South) intensified sectionalism.
The North's expanding economy and its increasing reliance on a free-labor manufacturing economy contrasted with the South's dependence on an economic system characterized by slave-based agriculture and slow population growth.
The North's expanding economy and its increasing reliance on a free-labor manufacturing economy contrasted with the South's dependence on an economic system characterized by slave-based agriculture and slow population growth.
Abolitionists, although a minority in the North, launched a highly visible campaign against slavery, adopting strategies of resistance ranging from fierce arguments against slavery to assistance in helping slaves escape to the willingness to use violence to achieve their goals.
The South used the arguments of states' rights, nullification, and racist stereotyping for their defense of slavery as a positive good. |
Repeated attempts at political compromise failed to calm tensions over slavery and often made sectional tensions worse, breaking down the trust between sectional leaders and resulting in the bitter election of 1860 and the secession of the southern states.
National leaders made a variety of proposals to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, including the Compromise of 1850 , the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the Dred Scott decision. Ultimately, all of these failed to reduce sectional conflict. The second party system ended when the issues of slavery and anti-immigrant nativism weakened loyalty to the two major parties and fostered the emergence of sectional parties- most notably the Republican Party in the North and Midwest.
Abraham Lincoln's election on a free soil platform in the election of 1860 led various southern leaders to conclude that their states must secede from the Union, precipitating civil war.
National leaders made a variety of proposals to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, including the Compromise of 1850 , the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the Dred Scott decision. Ultimately, all of these failed to reduce sectional conflict. The second party system ended when the issues of slavery and anti-immigrant nativism weakened loyalty to the two major parties and fostered the emergence of sectional parties- most notably the Republican Party in the North and Midwest.
Abraham Lincoln's election on a free soil platform in the election of 1860 led various southern leaders to conclude that their states must secede from the Union, precipitating civil war.
The Civil War
The Union victory in the Civil War and the contested reconstruction of the South settled the issues of slavery and secession, but left unresolved many questions about the power of the federal government and citizenship rights. The North's greater manpower and industrial resources, its leadership, and the decision for emancipation eventually led to the Union military victory over the Confederacy in the devastating Civil War.
Both the Union and the Confederacy mobilized their economies and societies to wage the war even while facing considerable home front opposition.
Both the Union and the Confederacy mobilized their economies and societies to wage the war even while facing considerable home front opposition.
Emancipation ProclamationLincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation changed the purpose of the war, enabling many African Americans to fight in the Union Army and helping prevent the Confederacy from gaining full diplomatic support from European powers.
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Although Confederate leadership showed initiative and daring early in the war, the Union ultimately succeeded due to:
The Civil War and Reconstruction altered power relationships between the state and the federal government and among the executive, legislative and judicial branches. The war ended slavery and the notion of a divisible union, but left unresolved questions of relative power and largely unchanged social and economic patterns. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery, bringing about the most dramatic social and economic change, but the exploitative and soil-intensive sharecropping system endured for several generations.
- improved military leadership
- more effective strategies
- key victories
- greater resources
- wartime destruction ("total war")
The Civil War and Reconstruction altered power relationships between the state and the federal government and among the executive, legislative and judicial branches. The war ended slavery and the notion of a divisible union, but left unresolved questions of relative power and largely unchanged social and economic patterns. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery, bringing about the most dramatic social and economic change, but the exploitative and soil-intensive sharecropping system endured for several generations.
Efforts by radical and moderate Republicans to reconstruct the defeated South changed the balance of power between Congress and the presidency and yielded some short-term successes. It reunited the union, opened up political opportunities and other leadership roles to former slaves, and temporarily rearranged the relationships between whites and blacks in the South. Radical Republicans' efforts to change southern racial attitudes and culture and establish a base for their party in the South ultimately failed due both to determined southern resistance and to the North's fading resolve.
Reconstruction
The constitutional changes of the Reconstruction period embodied a Northern idea of American identity and national purpose. It led to conflicts over new definitions of citizenship, particularly regarding the rights of African Americans, women and other minorities.
Although citizenship, equal protection of the laws, and voting rights were granted to African Americans under the 14th and 15th Amendments, these rights were progressively stripped away through segregation, violence, Supreme Court decisions, and local political tactics. The women's rights movement was both emboldened and divided over the 14th and 15th Amendments; however, these amendments established judicial principles that, while stalled for many decades, eventually became the basis for court decisions upholding civil rights.
Although citizenship, equal protection of the laws, and voting rights were granted to African Americans under the 14th and 15th Amendments, these rights were progressively stripped away through segregation, violence, Supreme Court decisions, and local political tactics. The women's rights movement was both emboldened and divided over the 14th and 15th Amendments; however, these amendments established judicial principles that, while stalled for many decades, eventually became the basis for court decisions upholding civil rights.