The American Revolution
1754-1800
A New American Republic
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British imperial attempts to reassert control over its colonies and the colonial reaction to these attempts produced a new American republic, which brought struggles over the new nation's social, political and economic identity. Britain's victory over France in the struggle for North America (French and Indian, or Seven Years' War) led to new conflicts among the British government, the North American colonists, and the American Indians, culminating in the creation of a new nation- the United States.
Throughout the second half of the 18th century (1700s), various American Indian groups repeatedly evaluated and adjusted their alliances with Europeans, other tribes, and the new US government. |
English population growth and expansion into the interior disrupted existing French-Indian fur trade networks and caused various Indian nations to shift alliances among competing European powers.
After the British defeat of the French, white-Indian conflicts continued to erupt as native groups sought both to continue trading with Europeans and to resist the encroachment of British colonists on traditional tribal lands. During and after the colonial war for independence, tribes attempted to forge advantageous political alliances with one another and with European powers to protect their interests, limit migration of white settlers, and maintain their tribal lands.
After the British defeat of the French, white-Indian conflicts continued to erupt as native groups sought both to continue trading with Europeans and to resist the encroachment of British colonists on traditional tribal lands. During and after the colonial war for independence, tribes attempted to forge advantageous political alliances with one another and with European powers to protect their interests, limit migration of white settlers, and maintain their tribal lands.
During and after the imperial struggles of the mid-18th century, new pressures began to unite the British colonies against perceived and real constraints on their economic activities and political rights, sparking a colonial independence movement and war with Britain.
Britain's massive debt from the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War) resulted in renewed efforts to consolidate imperial control over North American markets, taxes, and political institutions- actions that were supported by some colonists but resisted by others. The resulting independence movement was fueled by colonial elites, as well as by grassroots movements that included laborers, artisans, and women. It rested on the arguments over the rights of British subjects, the rights of the individual and the ideas of the Enlightenment. |
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Despite considerable loyalist opposition, as well as Britain's apparently overwhelming military and financial advantages, the patriot cause succeeded because of the colonists' greater familiarity with the land, their resilient military and political leadership, their ideological commitment, and their support from European allies.
In response to domestic and international tensions, the new United States debated and formulated foreign policy initiatives and asserted an international presence. The continued presence of European powers in North America challenged the United States to find ways to safeguard its borders, maintain neutral trading rights, and promote its economic interests.
In response to domestic and international tensions, the new United States debated and formulated foreign policy initiatives and asserted an international presence. The continued presence of European powers in North America challenged the United States to find ways to safeguard its borders, maintain neutral trading rights, and promote its economic interests.
The French Revolution's spread throughout Europe and beyond helped fuel Americans' debate not only about the nature of the United States' domestic order, but also about its proper role in the world. Although George Washington's Farewell Address warned about the dangers of divisive political parties and permanent foreign alliances, European conflict and tensions with Britain and France fueled increasingly bitter partisan debates throughout the 1790s. Benjamin Franklin - American Genius |
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In the late 18th century, new experiments with democratic ideas and republican forms of government, as well as other new religious, economic and cultural ideas, challenged traditional imperial systems across the Atlantic World.
During the this time, new ideas about politics and society led to debates about religion and governance and ultimately inspired experiments with new governmental structures. Protestant evangelical religious fervor strengthened many British colonists' understandings of themselves as chosen people blessed with liberty, while Enlightenment philosophers and ideas inspired many American political thinkers (such as Benjamin Franklin) to emphasize individual talent over hereditary privilege. |
Formation of an American Government
The colonists' belief in the superiority of republican self-government based on the natural rights of the people found its clearest American expression in Thomas Paine's Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence.
Many new state constitutions and the national Articles of Confederation, reflecting republican fears of both centralized power and excessive popular influence, placed power in the hands of the legislative branch and maintained property qualifications for voting and citizenship.
After experiencing the limitations of the Articles of Confederation, American political leaders wrote a new constitution based on the principles of federalism and separation of powers, crafted a Bill of Rights, and continued their debates about the proper balance between liberty and order.
Difficulties over trade, finances, and interstate and foreign relations, as well as internal unrest, led to calls for significant revisions to the Articles of Confederation and a stronger central government.
Many new state constitutions and the national Articles of Confederation, reflecting republican fears of both centralized power and excessive popular influence, placed power in the hands of the legislative branch and maintained property qualifications for voting and citizenship.
After experiencing the limitations of the Articles of Confederation, American political leaders wrote a new constitution based on the principles of federalism and separation of powers, crafted a Bill of Rights, and continued their debates about the proper balance between liberty and order.
Difficulties over trade, finances, and interstate and foreign relations, as well as internal unrest, led to calls for significant revisions to the Articles of Confederation and a stronger central government.
- Delegates met in Philadelphia, PA to draft a new constitution - form a new national government, but still placed limits on federal power
- Many delegates called for greater guarantees of individual rights, which resulted in the addition of a Bill of Rights
- Debates continued over issues such as the relationship between the national government and the states, economic policy, and the conduct of foreign affairs - this led to the creation of political parties
While the new governments continued to limit rights to some groups, ideas promoting self-government and personal liberty reverberated around the world- France (French Revolution), Haiti and throughout Latin America.
During and after the American Revolution, an increased awareness of the inequalities in society motivated some individuals and groups to call for the abolition of slavery an greater political democracy in the new state and national governments.
During and after the American Revolution, an increased awareness of the inequalities in society motivated some individuals and groups to call for the abolition of slavery an greater political democracy in the new state and national governments.
Challenges to the New Government
Migration within North America, cooperative interaction and competition for resources raised questions about boundaries and policies, intensified conflict among peoples and nations, and led to contests over the creation of a multiethnic, multiracial national identity. As migrants came westward from the British colonies along the Atlantic seaboard, interactions among different groups that would continue under an independent United States resulted in competition for resources, shifting alliances, and cultural blending. |
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The French withdrawal from North America and the subsequent attempt of various native groups to reassert their power over the interior of the continent resulted in the new white-Indian conflicts along the western borders of British, and later, US colonial settlement among settlers looking to assert more power in interior regions.
Migrants from within North America and around the world continued to launch new settlements in the West, creating new distinctive backcountry cultures and fueling social and ethnic tensions.
Migrants from within North America and around the world continued to launch new settlements in the West, creating new distinctive backcountry cultures and fueling social and ethnic tensions.
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The Spanish, supported by the bonded labor of local Indians, expanded their mission settlements into California, providing opportunities for social mobility among enterprising soldiers and settlers that led to new cultural blending. The policies of the US encouraged western migration and the orderly incorporation of new territories into the nation both extended republican institutions and intensified conflicts among American Indians and Europeans in the trans-Appalachian West. |
As settlers moved westward during the 1780s, Congress enacted the Northwest Ordinance for admitting new states and sought to promote public education, the protection of private property and the restriction of slavery in the Northwest Territory. The Constitution's failure to precisely define the relationship between American Indian tribes and the national government led to problems regarding treaties and Indian legal claims relating to the seizure of Indian lands.
As western settlers fought free navigation of the Mississippi River, the United States forged diplomatic initiatives to manage the conflict with Spain and to deal with the continued British presence on the American continent.
New voices for national identity challenge tendencies to cling to regional identities, contributing to the emergence of distinctly American cultural expressions.
As western settlers fought free navigation of the Mississippi River, the United States forged diplomatic initiatives to manage the conflict with Spain and to deal with the continued British presence on the American continent.
New voices for national identity challenge tendencies to cling to regional identities, contributing to the emergence of distinctly American cultural expressions.
- As national political institutions developed in the new US, varying regionally based positions on economic, political, social and foreign policy issues promoted the development of political parties
- The expansion of slavery in the lower South and adjacent western lands, and its gradual disappearance elsewhere, began to create distinctive regional attitudes toward the institution
- Enlightenment ideas and women's experiences in the movement for independence promoted an ideal of "republican motherhood", which called on white women to maintain an teach republican values within the family and granted women a new importance in American political culture