Expansion and Reform
1800-1848
The new nation struggled to define and extend democratic ideals as it faced economic, territorial and demographic changes. The US developed the world's first modern mass democracy and celebrated a new national culture, causing many Americans to try and reform government institutions to match this new sense of democratic freedom.
The nation's transformation to a more participatory democracy was accompanied by continued debates over:
As various interest groups and coalitions came together and defined their agendas, political parties began to form (most notably the Federalist and Democratic-Republicans in the 1790s and the Democrats and Whigs in the 1830s) to reflect and promote those agendas.
The nation's transformation to a more participatory democracy was accompanied by continued debates over:
- the extent of federal power
- the relationship between the government and the states
- the authority of different branches of the federal government
- the rights and responsibilities of individual citizens
As various interest groups and coalitions came together and defined their agendas, political parties began to form (most notably the Federalist and Democratic-Republicans in the 1790s and the Democrats and Whigs in the 1830s) to reflect and promote those agendas.
With a growing national and international market economy, Americans debated the scope of government's role in the economy. Diverging economic systems meant that regional political and economic loyalties often continued to overshadow national concerns (such as New England opposition to the Embargo Act, debates over tariffs and internal improvements).
Many white Americans in the South asserted their regional identity through pride in the institution of slavery and insisted that the federal government should defend that institution. A larger number of Americans began struggling with how to match democratic political ideals to political institutions and social realities (slavery in the South, industrial wage poverty in the North).
Many white Americans in the South asserted their regional identity through pride in the institution of slavery and insisted that the federal government should defend that institution. A larger number of Americans began struggling with how to match democratic political ideals to political institutions and social realities (slavery in the South, industrial wage poverty in the North).
The Second Great Awakening, along with liberal ideas from Europe and abroad and Romantic beliefs in human perfection brought about the rise of voluntary organizations designed to promote religious and secular reforms, including abolition and women's rights, Examples of such organizations include:
|
Despite outlawing the international slave trade, the dramatic rise in the number of free Blacks in both the North and the South, the widespread discussion of various emancipation plans, the federal and state governments continued to restrict the rights of African Americans.
There was also resistance to these democratic ideals- pro-slavery arguments in the South and West, rising xenophobia in the Northeastern cities, anti-black sentiments in popular American culture, anti-Asian sentiments in the Far West and very restrictive anti-Indian policies.
Despite the presence of such resistance, many Americans celebrated the nation's progress toward a unified national culture that blended Old World traditions with New World ideas. Various demographic groups developed distinctive cultures of their own- art, literature, language and architecture that combined European forms with local and regional cultural sensibilities.
Various groups of American Indians, women and religious followers developed cultures reflecting their interests and experiences, as did regional groups and an emerging middle class. Enslaved African Americans, isolated at the bottom of the social hierarchy, created communities and strategies to protect their dignity and their family structures. Numerous free African Americans participated in the abolitionist and reform movements that were aimed at changing their status.
There was also resistance to these democratic ideals- pro-slavery arguments in the South and West, rising xenophobia in the Northeastern cities, anti-black sentiments in popular American culture, anti-Asian sentiments in the Far West and very restrictive anti-Indian policies.
Despite the presence of such resistance, many Americans celebrated the nation's progress toward a unified national culture that blended Old World traditions with New World ideas. Various demographic groups developed distinctive cultures of their own- art, literature, language and architecture that combined European forms with local and regional cultural sensibilities.
Various groups of American Indians, women and religious followers developed cultures reflecting their interests and experiences, as did regional groups and an emerging middle class. Enslaved African Americans, isolated at the bottom of the social hierarchy, created communities and strategies to protect their dignity and their family structures. Numerous free African Americans participated in the abolitionist and reform movements that were aimed at changing their status.
Market Revolution
Developments in technology, agriculture and commerce brought significant changes to US settlement patterns, regional identity, gender and family relations, political power and the distribution of consumer goods. A global market and communications revolution, influencing and influenced by technological innovations, led to dramatic shifts in the nature of agriculture and manufacturing. Such innovations include:
Increasing numbers of Americans (especially women in factories and low-skilled male laborers) worked in factories to produce goods for distant markets. Regional economic specialization shaped settlement patterns and the influenced both the national and international economies.
- textile machinery
- steam engines
- interchangeable parts
- canals
- railroads
- telegraph
- cotton gin
- mechanical reaper
Increasing numbers of Americans (especially women in factories and low-skilled male laborers) worked in factories to produce goods for distant markets. Regional economic specialization shaped settlement patterns and the influenced both the national and international economies.
Northern Economy
|
Southern Economy
|
Western Economy
|
Efforts to exploit the nation's natural resources led to government efforts to promote free and forced migration of various demographic groups across the continent. This also led to competing ideas about labor systems, geographical boundaries and natural resources.
With the opening of canals and new roads into the western territories, native-born white citizens relocated westward, relying on new community systems to replace their old family and local relationships. Migrants from Europe increased the population in the East and Midwest, creating strong bonds of interdependence between the Northeast and the Old Northwest.
The South remained politically, culturally and ideologically distinct from the others regions while continuing to rely on its exports to Europe for economic growth.
The market revolution helped widen the gap between rich and poor, shaped emerging middle and working classes, and caused an increasing separation between home and workplace, which led to dramatic transformations in gender and in family roles and expectations.
Regional interests continued to trump national concerns as the basis for many political leaders' positions on economic issues such as:
With the opening of canals and new roads into the western territories, native-born white citizens relocated westward, relying on new community systems to replace their old family and local relationships. Migrants from Europe increased the population in the East and Midwest, creating strong bonds of interdependence between the Northeast and the Old Northwest.
The South remained politically, culturally and ideologically distinct from the others regions while continuing to rely on its exports to Europe for economic growth.
The market revolution helped widen the gap between rich and poor, shaped emerging middle and working classes, and caused an increasing separation between home and workplace, which led to dramatic transformations in gender and in family roles and expectations.
Regional interests continued to trump national concerns as the basis for many political leaders' positions on economic issues such as:
- slavery
- national bank
- tariffs
- internal improvements
Increasing Conflict
American interest in increasing foreign trade, expanding its national borders, and isolating itself from European conflicts shaped the nation's foreign policy and encouraged both government and private initiatives.
Struggling to create an independent global presence, US policymakers sought to dominate the North American continent and to promote its foreign trade. Following the Louisiana Purchase, the desire to acquire, survey and open up new lands and markets led Americans into numerous economic, diplomatic and military initiatives in the Western Hemisphere and Asia:
- negotiations with Britain over the Oregon border
- the annexation of Texas
- increasing trade with China
The United States sought dominance over the North American continent through a variety of means- military, judicial decisions, diplomatic efforts. Various groups and individuals initiated, championed, and also resisted, the expansion of territory and governmental powers. This led to increasing debate over the definition and use of these new areas.
Whites living on the frontier tended to support expansion efforts, while resistance by American Indians led to a series of wars and federal efforts to control American Indian populations.
The American acquisition of lands in the West resulted in a struggle, as well as attempts at compromise, over the extension of slavery into the western territories. The 1820 Missouri Compromise created a truce over the issue of slavery that eventually broke down as confrontations over slavery became increasingly bitter between the North, South and Western regions of the US. Sectional tensions over slavery sparked a broadscale national debate over federal goals, priorities and strategies for the future. |